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Tijdschrift voor de geschiedenis van de kartografie in Nederland
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The reign of Tsar Peter I (1682- 1725) was to change the whole
order of life in Russia. This transformation affected also the
production of Russian maps.
On his trip to Europe in 1697-98 Peter I was greatly interested
in meeting Western scholars and craftsmen. In Amsterdam
Peter met with Dutch engravers and officers, many of whom
accepted his invitation to enter into Russian service. The
engraving and printing of the first Russian originals was to take
place in the Netherlands. While staying in Amsterdam, Peter
handed to Jan Thesing a manuscript of Southern Russia,
prepared during the Azov campaign of 1696. Thesing published the printed version of the Latin edition in 1699. The very
existence of the edition printed in Russian, the first map ever,
was contested until a copy was found in this century. Subsequently even, Thesing set up a Russian typography in Amsterdam, for which Peter granted him the exclusive rights.
One of the first Dutchmen to be enlisted for Russian service was
Cornelis Cruys. With the rank of Vice-Admiral Cruys was
directed with the construction of the Russian Navy. In 1699,
to secure the Turkish frontier, Tsar Peter and Cruys sailed their
newly build fleet down the Don to Azov. Cruys took advantage
of the journey to survey the entire course of the Don.
On a short visit to Amsterdam, Cruys delivered the manuscript
maps to Hendrick Doncker for engraving and printing. The
maps were bound as an atlas and published between 1703-05.
The 'Atlas of the Don' constitutes a very unique and rare document.
It was the last time engraving and printing of Russian maps was
realized abroad. From this time on Russian map production
was entirely to take place inside Russia. This highly successful
change was to a considerable extent due to the work of
Adriaan Schoonebeeck, the very able Dutch engraver whom
Peter had invited to Moscow. Despite his short period in Russian service (1698-1705) Schoonebeeck was one of the most
productive foreign masters.
He engraved a plan of the siege of Azov (1699), a map of the
eastern part of the Sea of Azov (1701) and many maps of the
Baltic regions. Besides that he was a teacher of many Russian
pupils.
Another Dutch engraver Pieter Picaart, pupil of Schoonebeeck, entered Russian service in 1702. His work included
maps of the Finnisch Gulf, a print of the battle of Poltava and
a large view of Moscow.
After 1725 no Dutchman seems to have played any role of
significance in Russlan cartography, which had become entirely
autonomous and did therefore no longer depend on European
cartographers.
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Henriette Marsman-Slot
Mapping the Berkel river: The maps of Gerrit Ravenschot a.o. (1763), the foundation of the second Cornpany of the Berkel
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 1, pp. 8-11]
The first Company of the Berkel, founded 1644 to make the Berkel river navigable, resulted in a failure. In spite of this many people, especially in Zutphen, hoped for a recovery of the old shipping route to the Mnsterland. In 1753 the Zutphen city architect Gerrit Ravenschot made a new plan for the canalization of the Berkel river. His plan was the immediate cause for the foundation of the second Company of the Berkel. For the execution of his plan he was in 1763 charged to make a map of the river course from Vreden (in Germany) to Zutphen, where the Berkel flows in the IJssel river. Together with J. H. van den Heuvel and L.H. Bonnet two maps were made, one with a scale of ca. 1:3700 (length of the map 13 meters) and one with a scale of ca. 1:7000 (length 5 meters), which were finished in 1764. They are preserved in the city archives of Zutphen. The article discusses these maps and the different canalization projects illustrated. The second Company of the Berkel, founded in 1766, however, flourished only a short period. Apart from this, the shipping on the Berkel ended at the end of the nineteenth century. (back)
Marc Hameleers
Pictures of cities: an attempt to place them, between art and science on the basis of a new classification
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 2, pp. 22-32]
There is no concensus of opinion about the divising line between art and science; nor are there any clear cut criteria to
distinguish between topographic maps and topographic pictures. In this article an attempt wili be made to place cartographic pictures of cities between art and science. To this end,
first, the most important properties or characteristics of these
pictures will be outlined. Successively will be mentioned the
choice of materials by the author, the (vertical) angle, the way
buildin'gs and other objects have been drawn, the surrounding
area of the city, the scale, the projection, the degree of detail
and generalisation and the geodetic accuracy.
On closer examination of the angle, there appears to be a
tripartation: plans, oblique perspective drawings and profiles.
The categorie plans comprises those images that depict a city
perpendicularly above. A profile is obtained when the author
takes his direction of view parallel to the earth's surface. Both
these kinds of pictures should be considered as ideal types. All
other drawings depicting a city at an angle of zero up to ninety
degrees are ranged with the oblique perspective drawings.
When describing such a drawing, it is advisable to indicate the
estimated (angle). In practice it is necessary to observe a certain
degree of flexibility with regard to determining the exact angle.
It is suggested that a classification of pictures of cities should be
based on the most user-friendly characteristics, being the angle
and the indication whether buildings and other objects were
drawn in a three dimensional way. The other six characteristics
are, for different reasons, unusable as criteria for classification.
The choice of materials and the question whether or not the
surrounding areas of the cities are included, do not say
anything about the quality of the main content (the city itself)
of the picture. The four remaining characteristics: the projection, the scale, the degree of detail and generalisation, and the
geodetic accuracy are also considered unusable criteria in this
respect. They are, however, important with regard to the placing of cartograpby between art and science.
Especially old maps ofien have both a decorative and a cartographic content. The ornamental part is usually disignated as
'artistic'. The intention of this article, however, is not to deal
with the artistic value of decorations on maps, but to discuss
some aspects of the place of the cartographic content between
art and science. The basic assumption is that we are dealing
with images of object (cities) that are observable in the territory.
Thematic images and scale-models are excluded. In order to be
able to place cartographic pictures between art and science, the
question should be formulated as follows: which position do
cartographic pictures occupy between artistic and scientific pictures. It is hardly possible to present a generally recognized
definition of an artistic picture. In practice, it is artist, art-lovers
and art-buyers as'well as the established authorities on art who
determine which pictures recelves the designation 'artistic'. The
definition of a scientific picture must be approved differently. A
scientific picture can be described as an illustration of the findings of scientific research. The picture itself can not be considered scientific. The scientific element of cartography should
be focused primarily on developing methods to improve the
technical aspects of the production of maps, and on research
on the way maps are experienced by their users. Departing
from the ideas mentioned above and from the definition of
'map' and 'cartography' as given in the Dutch Cartographic
Dictionary (1985-1986), the author states that the final product
that we cal] map:
- may receive the designation 'artistic',
- can not be called scientific,
- has to comply with certain technical standards.
The scientific cartographer should adopt an attitude of
aloofness with regard to the question whether or not a car-
tographic picture methods and technics. This applies to
modern cartographers as well as to map-historians. The scien-
tific cartographer has the task to lay down the technical criteria
an picture has to meet in order to be called 'map'. The moment
he concerns himself with the reason why a map was made,
which in itself is a very useful activity, he infringes upon the ter-
ritory of other specialists. If, for example, he investigates the
purpose that lies behind a certain nautical chart, the map
historian enters the field of maritime history. If he verifies the
reason for making a certain juridical map, he treads on the ter-
ritory of the history of law. Etc. Likewise, the artistic evaluation
of pictures and their actual technical realisation are strictly
speaking beyond the scope of the cartographer who claims to
be a scientist.
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Ernst van Keulen
Johannes van Keulen: The start of two centuries chart-making at the Nieuwe Brug in Amsterdam
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 2, pp. 33-39]
An exhibition about charts, books and instruments for navigation is to be seen at the Nederlands Scheepvaart Museum in
Amsterdam, from june 28 until august 20 this year. The charts,
books and instruments shown are products of the House Van
Keulen, which was acting in Amsterdam from about 1680 until
1885. All texts in this exhibition are in dutch as well as in
english.
The article is concerned with Johannes van Keulen, the
founder of the firm. Little is known about him and the scarce
information is not always interpreted in the right way. For
many decades Johannes van Keulen was mixed up with someone else. At the end of the C 17 there were several men living in Amsterdam with the same name, Johannes van Keulen.
At least two of them were in cartography trade. Keuning solved
the confusion in 1952. He carefully examined the familyties of
the Van Keulens. He distilated out of all these ties the real
founder of the House Van Keulen.
The address of Johannes van Keulen has also been subject to
misunderstanding. In this article it is proved that he never lived
and worked in the Nieuwebrugsteeg in Amsterdam, as was
supposed by Bom, the biographer of the Van Keulens, and
Koeman. Van Keulen published two important pilots, the Zee-
Fakkel and the Zee-Atlas. The latter was already published
before 1680. Because most of the charts lack dates, it's difficult
to obtain the exact publishing date. One of the consulted copies
of the Zee-Atlas contains a chart wich is dated 1674 (see illustration). The name 'Johannes van keule' and the date
'1674' are printed different, compared to the other text on the
chart. It's probably printed later. If the dating is correct, this
chart would be the oldest one known made by Johannes van
Keulen. lf not, why is the date '1674' used?
In 1680 Johannes van Keulen got his first privilege granted by
the Dutch government of that time. This privilege was a kind
of protection against illegal copying of produced books and
charts. This was especially for the atlases or pilotbooks which
were made with extensive initial costs.
The other pilot, the Zee-Fakkel, was published in 5 volumes
between 1681 and 1684. It contained over 130 new charts,
most of them compiled by Claas Jansz. Vooght and illustrated
by Jan Luyken. The charts covered all the known seas and
coasts of the world. The area east of Cape of Good Hope and
west of Cape Hoorn though, was not published in detailed
charts, because of the trade-monopoly of the Dutch East Indies
Company (VOC). The grandson of Johannes van Keulen,
would be the first in the Netherlands to publish detailed printed
charts of this area in a pilot which was called 6th volume of the
Zee-Fakkel (1753).
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Helen Wallis
19th century thematic cartography
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 2, pp. 46-52]
The thematic map is essentially a scientific map, it depicts not
the aspects of reality as they appear directly to the senses, but
ideas about reality. Edmund Halley, the pioneer of thematic
cartography in England, made his first two scientific maps to
support theories. His chart of magnetic variation in the Atlantic
(1701) was the first isogonic map; he had invented the line of
equal value. The concept was not further developed until 1817
when Alexander von Humboldt devised the first isotherm map.
The technique was widely applied to other phenomena. The
fullest exploitation appears in Dr. Heinrich Berghaus's
Physikalischer Atlas, Gotha, 1845. Alexander Keith Johnston
published an Englisch version in Edinburgh in 1848.
For mapping in the field of human and economic geography
and statistics the time span in development was somewhat
similar. Sir William Petty invented and development the
science of 'political arithmetic' in the period 1660 to 1690.
William Playfair the scot and A.F.W. Crome, a professor at
Giessen, were both innovators in developing statistical
graphics. Crome is now considered to be the inventor of the
statistical map, anticipating Humboldt's work of the 1810s and
1820s. '
By the 1820s sociological phenomena were being represented
on maps in works by the French statistician Charles Dupin
(Paris, 1827), by Adolphe Quetelet of Belgium (Paris, 1835)
and by A-M Guerry (Paris, 1833). Guerry in 1833 was the first
to use the term 'statistiques morales' (moral statistics). His atlas
on the moral statistics of England compared with France, Paris,
1864, created a sensation in Germany, England and the
United States of America. England contributed with similar
studies undertaken by Joseph Fletcher and (at the request of
Albert the Prince Consort) illustrated with maps in 1849.
There were other important developments in Great Britain at
about the same time. In 1837 lieutenant Henry Drury Harness
produced an atlas of lreland to accompany the Second Report
of the Commissioners for Railways. This included map show-
ing population by shading (the dasymetric technique) and traf-
fic flow. The latter were the first published economic , flow
maps. Alphonse Belpaire of Belgium and C.J. Minard of
France may have seen Harness's maps. Both were making flow
maps in the 1840s, and Minard developed to a fine art the 'carte figurative à bandes.'
The German geographer Augustus Petermann, who was trained by Berghaus at Potsdam, made important experiments in
tecniques of statistical mapping while in London from 1847 to
1854, making maps of population (1849), occupations (1851)
covering the British Isles. in 1857 Niels Ravn the Danish
statistican achieved a forther advance with his maps of the
population of Denmark in 1845 and 1855, using a system of
isopleths to represent density.
Thers almost all the thematic techniques at present in use had
been invented by the middle of the 19th century. A new car-
tographic language had been devised. Significantly, the term
cartographia' (cartography) was coined in 1839. The name
'thematic' as applied to maps is comparatwely recent, dating
from 1952-53.
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R.P.G.A. Voskuil
Early 19th century seacharts of the Dutch East Indies as product of navigational education
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 2, pp. 53-57]
The decline of the Dutch East India Company in the second
half of the 18th century also had its influence on the quality of
the Dutch seacharts, which were mostly based on observations
of ships officers. One of the causes for the declining quality of
the charts was the lack suffucient training and instruction on
subjects like navigation and hydrographic surveying for boys
who whould become officers on ships of the Dutch East India
Company (VOC). An 'Académie de Marine', which was
established in Batavia in 1743 had to close down only after a
few years. the second attempt to set up an educational institute proved more successful. In 1782 a 'Navy School' was
founded in the town of Semarang on the North coast of Java.
Later, in 1817, this school was changed into a 'Military
School'. In these institutes rnuch time was spent on teaching
the pupils landsurveying and hydrographic surveying. The
main instructor responsible for the teaching of hydrographic
surveying was Jan Teunis Busscher. Under his guidance a
large number of hydrographic charts of the Dutch East Indies
were made. The charts of the seas around Java and of the
most important harbours along the coasts of this island were
based on surveys he carried out together with his pupils.
There were also charts made in the Navy School, which
covered seas in other parts of the archipelago. These,
however, were compiled from existing charts, both from Dutch
and British origin.
The charts were copied by hand in the school, which was done
by the pupils. So training and production were carried out at
the same time. That is why we can consider the Navy/Military
School not only as a training establishment, but also as a small
hydrographic bureau.
The charts produced in this way fill in the gap between the end
of the 'traditional' charts of the East Indies, made under the
supervision of the Dutch East India Company, which officially
ceased to exist on 31st December 1799, and the beginning of
the production of the more 'modern' hydrographic charts in the
course of the 19th century.
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H.C. Pouls
The triangulation
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 3, pp. 61-71]
In this paper the origin and, development of the triangulation
method is traced. Two. Dutchmen, Gemma Frisius and
Willebrord Snellius play an important part in this development.
Frisius gave the first clear description of the method of intersection (1533) and Snellius introduced the use of a triangulation-network combined with accurate base line measurements and
astronomical determined points (1617).
Attention is also paid to Sebastian Münster, who suggested the
use of bearing and distance for position fixing and Wilhelm
Schickhart, who observed for the first time a triangulation-network for topographical mapping.
Furthermore it is shown that the contribution by Tycho Brahe
is neglectable. Special attention is paid to the development in
The Netherlands.
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H.P. Deys
The town plans of Jacob van Deventer: Results of a recent investigation in Madrid
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 4, pp. 81-95]
In the second half of the 16th century the Dutch cartographer
Jacob van Deventer, probably by order of the Spanish king
Philip II, executed about 250 topographical plans of the
Netherlands at that time. Two series of the plans have survived. One series of 152 loose-leaf plans which had been auctioned in 1859 in The Hague is at present being preserved in
several Dutch and Belgian archives. The few texts on these
leaves are all written in Dutch. A second series of the town
plans, in two volumes bearing the numbers II en III is to be
found in Madrid. The texts of all these plans are written in
Latin. Volume I has not been recovered.
Philip's intermediary in the Netherlands was Viglius, president
of the State council at Brussels. The original correspondence
between Viglius and his Dutch friend Hopper in Madrid,
related to the acquisition of the plans, has been recovered. It
appears that Van Deventer in 1572 fled from Malines to Cologne, taking with him the town plans. Presumably he refused
to deliver the plans to Viglius, evidently because of non-payment by the Government.
When he died at the age of about 75 years in Cologne in 1575
the municipal government discovered in his household effects
the important works which appeared to be connected with the
Spanish king. The correspondence with Viglius shows that
there were three volumes of maps and town plans bearing the
coat-of-arms of Philip II. The city council was inclined to send
the 'books and the belonging minutes' to Viglius. Viglius wrote
to Hopper that he had received the 'three geographical books'
but he died before he could send them to Spain. It remains
unknown when and how the works arrived in Madrid. Only
two of the three volumes are known, the already mentioned
volumes II and III in Madrid. Nothing is known about the
minutes. In Cologne, Van Deventer must have met the famous
publisher Hogenberg because they knew each other earlier. In
his Civitatis Orbis Terrarum the latter mentions the cartographic
works of Van Deventer, remarking that Van Deventer died too
early. It is now generally accepted that the leaves which appeared at the auction are the minutes, and the two volumes are
the fair copies of the Van Deventer town plans. I have studied
the original volumes in Madrid and combined the results with
published data on this matter, including the facsimile-edition of
the loose-leaf plans. This study leads to the conclusion that the
'minutes' by no means could have served in executing the fair
copies. The plans in the two volumes contain several hundreds
of legends indicating rivers and other waters, churches, abbeys,
hospitals, town halls etc. which Van Deventer could not
possibly have remembered by heart when drawing the fair
copies. There must have been a third series of the plans. In-
deed, the 'minutes' probably could have been drawn after
having cornpleted the fair copies, with the intention to have
them printed by Hogenberg. This could have been the explanation of the remark of Hogenberg, paraphrasing the death
of a 75-year old man, in those days, as too early.
Several features of the town plans, in both existing versions are
discussed. In volume II an index by another hand is present but
the numbers of the leaves and the spelling of most of the towns
do not match with the contents. Volume III contains an index
by Van Deventer himself, but was unfinished, ending with the
letter C. It is suggested that volume III originally should have
been no I. A complete review of all the existing towns plans,
in their original spelling and sequence in both albums is given.
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M.A. van der Eerden-Vonk
The 17th century Edam land surveyor and cartographer Sijmon Willemszoon Boonacker
[Caert-Thresoor 8(1989) 4, pp. 95-103]
In Edam several cartographers flourished during the 16th and the
first decades of the 17th century. They achieved great fame,
especially because of their nautical maps of the recently discovered
shores of Asia, Africa and the Americas. In addition of these
charts. Some members of this so-called 'North-Holland' or'Edam
School of Cartographers', such as Cornelis Doets and Marten
Janszoon produced also maps of a more local signigicance.
However, the town of Edam harboured another group of less
known cartographers, who just concentrated on local and regional
maps. Amongst them, Sijmon Willemszoon Boonacker (ca. 1597-
ca. 1641) figures as one of the most important.
After having been officially installed in 1615 as land surveyor,
Boonacker presumably worked for a few years as a schoolmaster in
Edam, before he got his first large assignment in 1620: the
surveying, parcellation and charting of the Purmer inpoldering.
From that moment on he spent most of his professional life on the
many land-reclamations, as carried out at that time in North-
Holland. Besides his job in the Purmer (1620-1629), Boonacker
participated in the inpoldering of the Broeker-, Buiksloter- and
Belmerlakes (1627-1629), the Wormer (1625-1627), the Voor-IJ
(1633-1634) and in the damming up of the Gouwzee (c. 1630?)
which was ultimately not realized.
Further, he was employed by the municipal governments of the
towns of Monnickendarn (1624-1632) and Edam (1622-1634). For
the latter he drew, among other things, three maps related to the
planned extensions of the town.
With the exception of a few surveying activities for the Westfriese
Omringdijk in 1637, nothing is known about the last part of his
career from 1634 until his death in 1641 of 1642.
The appendix of the article contains a list of all known surviving
and lost maps of Boonacker, in original or in copy.
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